Encourage oral fluid intake by offering fresh water, wetting leafy vegetables, or flavoring water with vegetable juice, and offer a large selection of fresh, moistened greens such as cilantro, romaine lettuce Romaine or cos lettuce is a variety of lettuce that grows in a tall head of sturdy dark green leaves with firm ribs down their centers. Unlike most lettuces, it is tolerant of heat. In North America, romaine is sold as whole heads or as “hearts” that have had the outer leaves removed and are ofte… Collard describes certain loose-leafed cultivars of Brassica oleracea, the same species as many common vegetables, including cabbage and broccoli. Collard is part of the Acephala Group of the species, which includes kale and spring greens. They are in the same cultivar group owin…Romaine lettuce
Collard greens
What is urolithiasis in rabbits?
Urolithiasis (stones or sludge) within the urinary tract of rabbits, has been a ‘hot topic’ in the veterinary profession and amongst owners for several years.
What is the best diet for pet rabbits?
The ideal diet for pet rabbits should contain at least 15-16% fiber, 12-13 % protein, 1-3 % fat, 0.6-1.0 % calcium, calcium to phosphorus ratio of 1:1 – 2:1, and less than 1000 IU/kg vitamin D.
Is there a cure for kidney stones in rabbits?
However, there isn't a known cure to prevent the stones from forming, or reappearing after treatment. Even in the best of conditions with the best of care, rabbits can acquire stones which are the formation of crystals within the urinary tract. This condition is also known as urolithiasis and can occur in any of the organs within the urinary tract.
What should I do if my rabbits bladder is inflamed?
If conservative therapy fails, then offer manual expression and/or bladder flushing. The unusual calcium metabolism of rabbits makes it essential to maintain a diet that is well-balanced with appropriate calcium concentration, calcium to phosphorus ratio, and vitamin D content.
How do you treat kidney stones in rabbits?
TREATMENT AND PREVENTIONIf your rabbit has bladder stones (especially large ones), surgery is necessary to remove them. ... Increase water intake by providing unlimited hay comprising 80-90% of daily dietary intake, plenty of fresh water and green leafy vegetables to keep the urine dilute.More items...•
How do you get rid of bladder sludge in rabbits?
Most cases of bladder sludge do not require surgery unless there is a blockage present. Catheterization and flushing of the bladder - Bladder sludge is usually treatable by anesthetizing the bunny, placing a catheter into the bladder and flushing the bladder with saline to dilute the sludge material.
How do you prevent kidney stones in rabbits?
Diet: In most cases, dietary modification to reduce calcium levels is required. This will usually involve switching the bunny from alfalfa-based pellets and/or hay to a Timothy hay-based pellet and grass hay such as Timothy, Oat, Orchard, etc.
What foods are high in calcium for rabbits?
Some leafy greens, such as collard and dandelion greens, parsley, kale, Swiss chard, and escarole, should be fed in limited quantities, as they are high in calcium and may contribute to the development of calcium-based bladder stones if fed in excess.
Is bladder sludge painful for rabbits?
Cystitis. Frequent bouts of cystitis often indicate a problem with the rabbits urination. They may not be able to completely empty their bladder due to back pain, being overweight, lack of places to urinate, painful scalding or sludge within the bladder.
What vegetables contain high amounts of oxalate and calcium?
High oxalate foods include:Spinach. Leafy greens like spinach contain many vitamins and minerals, but they're also high in oxalates. ... Soy Products. ... Almonds. ... Potatoes. ... Beets. ... Navy Beans. ... Raspberries. ... Dates.
What causes too much calcium in rabbits?
Causes may include severe liver failure, insufficient dietary update of calcium, diarrhoea and sometimes with late stages of pregnancy and during lactation whereby the amount of calcium required by the rabbit is dramatically increased.
Why is my rabbits pee milky yellow?
If your bunny's urine is milky, that means he's got more calcium in his diet and his system than he can use. Most likely, that's caused by consuming too much alfalfa. Even if you don't feed alfalfa, a legume, as a fiber source in hay, it's the primary ingredient in many commercial rabbit pellets.
What does bladder sludge look like in rabbits?
Sludge. Rabbits suffering from sludge may display any of the symptoms described above for calculi, as well as passing thick, white, gritty urine that in severe cases will become semi-solid when passed. White or sludgy urine on their own are common in rabbits and often occur after the rabbit has eaten high calcium foods ...
What causes sludge in bladder?
Bladder problems involving stones, sludge and grit develop when there is a collection of excess calcium which builds up in the urinary tract. Sludge (dense calcium crystals) has a tooth paste like consistency and is often difficult to remove completely with normal urination.
What causes sludge in urine?
Acute cystitis This condition is often caused by a bacterial infection and can cause cloudy urine or blood and other debris in your urine. You're more likely to experience acute cystitis if you have: kidney stones. improper hygiene.
Why is there white stuff in my rabbits pee?
Healthy rabbits excrete excess calcium salts via the renal system, and this can give the urine a chalky or opaque appearance. The urine will often dry to a white, chalky residue. Unless the residue is thick, pasty, and the color of mustard powder, this is normal, and should not be considered “sludge.”
What are my rabbit's calcium requirements?
It has been suggested that the average sized, adult, non-breeding, pet rabbit needs around 510 mg of calcium daily .
Why is calcium so important in the development of urolithiasis?
Calcium is very important for rabbits; they need it to form strong and healthy bones and teeth (and so to prevent dental problems and osteoporosis). Just as too little can cause problems, so can excess quantities, and although calcium consumption isn’t believed to be the sole factor responsible for the development of calculi (stones), it is thought to play a part, so getting your rabbit’s calcium intake correct may help to prevent future problems.
What is the diagnosis of urolithiasis?
Urolithiasis is usually suspected based on clinical signs of hematuria, dysuria, or urethral obstruction. Urinalysis, urine culture, radiography, and ultrasonography may be required to differentiate uroliths from urinary tract infection or neoplasia. Radiography, cystoscopy, or ultrasonography are critically important to detect uroliths, because only ~10% of feline urocystoliths can be detected by abdominal palpation. Uroliths with a diameter >3 mm are usually radiodense; however, because smaller uroliths are common, double-contrast radiography may be required for detection. Radiographic evidence of uroliths is seen in ~20% of cats with hematuria or dysuria.
What are uroliths made of?
Some mineral solutes precipitate to form crystals in urine; these crystals may aggregate and grow to macroscopic size, at which time they are known as uroliths (calculi or stones). Uroliths generally contain an organic matrix that is believed to vary minimally among uroliths and that constitutes ~2%–10% of the stone’s chemical composition. The remaining 90%–98% of the urolith is composed of minerals that vary depending on the type of urolith. Urolithiasis is a general term referring to stones located anywhere within the urinary tract. Uroliths can develop in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra and are referred to as nephroliths, ureteroliths, urocystoliths, and urethroliths, respectively.
What is the most common urolith in dogs?
The most common canine uroliths are magnesium ammonium phosphate, calcium oxalate, or urate ; less common uroliths include cystine, silica, calcium phosphate, and xanthine. While general management includes surgical removal and medical management, the appropriate treatment protocol depends on the location of the urolith and its chemical composition, as well as on patient-specific factors. Nephrolithiasis is generally not associated with an increase in the rate of progression of kidney injury; thus, it is recommended that animals with nephrolithiasis be managed without surgery in most cases.
What are the factors that contribute to the formation of uroliths in dogs?
Mechanisms involved in stone formation are incompletely understood in dogs and cats. However, three main contributing factors are 1) matrix— the inorganic protein core may facilitate initial urolith formation, 2) crystallization inhibitors —organic and inorganic crystallization inhibitors may be lacking or dysfunctional in animals with uroliths, and 3) precipitation crystallization factors— a complex relationship among urine solutes and other chemical factors in the urine can lead to conditions favoring crystallization. Regardless of the underlying mechanism (s), uroliths are not produced unless sufficiently high urine concentrations of urolith-forming constituents exist and transit time of crystals within the urinary tract is prolonged. For selected stones (eg, struvite, cystine, urate), other favorable conditions (eg, proper pH) for crystallization must also exist. These criteria can be affected by urinary tract infection, diet, intestinal absorption, urine volume, frequency of urination, therapeutic agents, and genetics.
What causes a feline urolith?
Common management schemes that involve feeding urine-acidifying diets with reduced magnesium have reduced the incidence of feline struvite urolithiasis. Magnesium has been reported to be an inhibitor of calcium oxalate formation in rats and people; thus, the reduced magnesium concentration in feline urine may partially explain the increase in calcium oxalate stones in cats.
Where are urolithiasis stones located?
Urolithiasis is a general term referring to stones located anywhere within the urinary tract. Uroliths can develop in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra and are referred to as nephroliths, ureteroliths, urocystoliths, and urethroliths, respectively.
Why do animals have a spontaneous bladder rupture?
Animals with spontaneous bladder rupture may appear temporarily improved because the pain associated with bladder distention has been relieved ; however, peritonitis and absorption of uremic toxins and potassium occur rapidly and lead to depression, abdominal distention, cardiac arrhythmias, and death.
How to get rid of a rabbit's urine stones?
Treatment for the underlying cause of the stones will be next priority. Your veterinarian will try to manually massage the bladder to remove retained urine. If there is a blockage in the urinary tract, your veterinarian can use a flushing technique to push ...
Why does my rabbit have calcium in his urine?
This combined with factors such as inadequate water intake, lack of exercise, obesity, and incomplete emptying of the bladder can cause precipitation of calcium in the urine, ...
Why do rabbits have kidney stones?
Kidney stones form in the urinary tract due to the deposition of complex compounds containing calcium in the urine. In rabbits, all the calcium that is consumed is absorbed, and urine usually contains 45-60 percent calcium (other mammals’ urine contains only two percent calcium).
How to diagnose a rabbit with a stone?
The first step will be to differentiate between stones and other causes of abnormal urine output. Blood and urine analyses will be conducted to check blood and urine calcium levels, and an analysis will be done of any stone (uroliths) that are removed form the bladder. X-ray and ultrasound imaging can be used to reveal the presence, size, and location of the stones.
What to do if a stone is in the urinary tract?
If there is a blockage in the urinary tract, your veterinarian can use a flushing technique to push the stones out of the tract. In some cases, surgery is required for removal of stones that are lodged in the urinary tract, or that are too large to pass through the tract safely.
Why is it important to reduce the risk of rabbit recurrence?
Recurrence is likely, so it is important to decrease risk factors such as obesity, a sedentary life, and a poor diet. A combination of a lowered calcium diet, increased exercise, and increased water consumption for the remainder of the rabbit's life are all highly advised for the long term health of the rabbit.
What is done to check for bladder stones?
Blood and urine analyses will be conducted to check blood and urine calcium levels, and an analysis will be done of any stone (uroliths) that are removed form the bladder. X-ray and ultrasound imaging can be used to reveal the presence, size, and location of the stones.
Why is ferret urolithiasis rare?
Urolithiasis in the ferret is relatively uncommon today due to the availability of high-quality ferret diets. Struvite or magnesium ammonium phosphate stones are most frequently seen.
What is the most common calcium stone found in rabbits?
Calcium-containing stones such as calcium carbonate (calcite) and calcium oxalate are most commonly reported in rabbits and rodents.
Is urolithiasis a ferret disease?
Urolithiasis is characterized by single or multiple calculi throughout the urinary tract or by the presence of sandy material within the bladder and urethra. Uroliths are fortunately more of a historical disease in the ferret, while calculi are still an important problem in rabbits and rodents . . .
How to treat urinary stones in rabbits?
The type of stones, as well as their location and size are usually the determining factors as to whether short-term treatment which involves surgically removing the stones is recommended, or whether long-term treatment, which focuses on reducing the rabbits calcium intake, is required. Antibiotics are often used to control or prevent infections while pain management is used to help subdue the pain, and dietary modifications are used to decrease calcium and oxalate content in the urine.
Why can't my rabbit urinate?
If your rabbit is unable to urinate, it means that he is unable to rid himself of excess calcium or waste, which could result in death. Because of the potential danger, it is recommended that you take your rabbit to the veterinarian as soon as you notice any symptoms that may be a sign of this condition.
What are Urinary Tract Stones?
Urolithiasis is also known as bladder stones, cystitis, kidney stones, urethritis, and urinary calculi. These stones can irritate the lining of the urinary tract which in turn may cause blood in the urine, difficulties urinating, discomfort, pain, as well as full or partial blockage.
Why are rabbits predisposed to stones?
Genetics. - Some rabbits are predisposed to forming stones or sludge which is why genetics cannot be ruled out. Kidney Damage. - Kidneys that are damaged may not be able to manage the amount of calcium to be processed.
What does a urinary tract stone look like in rabbits?
Urinary tract stones can appear gradually or suddenly, with or without any signs of sludge (a sediment formed with the combination of calcium, protein, cellular debris, and mucus that can become thick in consistency). Symptoms of these stones closely resemble those of a urinary tract infection. It's important and highly recommended that you seek veterinary assistance immediately if your rabbit begins to show any of the following symptoms:
How to tell if a rabbit has a urinary tract infection?
It's important and highly recommended that you seek veterinary assistance immediately if your rabbit begins to show any of the following symptoms: A hunched posture when trying to urinate. Blood in the urine.
Why can't rabbits empty their bladder?
Weight. - Rabbits that are overweight may not physically be able to empty their bladder completely because of weak muscle tone or the inability to position themselves correctly to urinate ; the calcium in their urine can accumulate in the bladder. Top.
How to treat sludge in rabbit urine?
Mild cases of bladder sludge respond to increased fluid intake, exercise, and dietary changes. Increasing fluid intake will cause more urine to be produced, dilute the solutes in the urine, and enable more sludge to pass. Subcutaneous fluids can be administered during the initial phase of treatment, 20-30 mL/kg q8-12 hr, and owners can be taught how to continue treatment at home. Increase the amount of water the rabbit will drink by flavoring the water with fruit juice. Find out which fruit juice the rabbit likes best by giving it directly, via syringe or in a bowl. Add its favorite juice to the drinking water. Change the water daily and monitor the water intake. Gradually reduce the proportion of juice in the water to the point that water consumption drops, and then return the quantity of juice to its previous level.
What percentage of rabbits have calcium in their urine?
The fractional excretion of calcium for most mammals is less than 2%; the range in rabbits is 45%-60%. When the reabsorptive capacity of the kidney is reached, calcium precipitates as calcium carbonate in the alkaline urine of the rabbit, causing cloudy or sludgy urine. When metabolic demand for calcium is increased by growth, pregnancy, lactation, or metabolic disorders, less calcium is excreted and the urine appears clear.
What is the color of rabbit urine?
The urine of rabbits is normally cloudy in appearance and contains three main types of calcium-containing crystals: calcium carbonate monohydrate, anhydrous calcium carbonate, and ammonium magnesium phosphate. The color and turbidity of rabbit urine can vary from "grapefruit juice" to "coffee with cream". Calcium sediment can accumulate in the bladder like mud. It combines with mucus, protein and cellular debris, coming to rest in a dense layer along the ventral wall of the bladder. Over time "bladder sludge" can condense into a doughy consistency that it difficult to break up and resists going back into suspension. Bladder sludge may lead to cystitis, bladder distention, and other problems.
How to tell if rabbit has bladder sludge?
Affected rabbits frequently show no symptoms and may urinate normally. Mild cases of bladder sludge may be discovered as an incidental finding on x-rays. Abdominal radiography will reveal a diffuse to solid mineral opacity in the bladder, often completely defining its borders. Palpation of the bladder may reveal a mass with a doughy consistency. Abdominal ultrasound and endoscopy are occasionally used. It is also important to assess the kidneys, ureters, and urethra. Metabolic bone disease and dental problems are frequently found in rabbits with bladder sludge. Bladder sludge is occasionally associated with stones. Culture and sensitivity of the urine is often negative.
How does rabbit calcium work?
In addition, during normal dental wear, calcium is released from the teeth, swallowed, and reabsorbed from the intestine.
What hormones regulate calcium in rabbits?
In humans, both estrogen and androgens are known to regulate renal calcium transport. This regulatory effect may partly account for the negative calcium balance that results from deficiency of these hormones. Estrogens also increase intestinal absorption of calcium, elevate total serum calcium concentration, and may influence the conversion to active vitamin D3. Testosterone and progesterone both enhance reabsorption of calcium in the rabbit kidney. Testosterone has been shown to have a determinant effect in the formation of urinary stones in rats, while estrogen has a protective effect. The effects of gonadectomy on calcium homeostasis in the rabbit have yet to be determined. Sex steroids have been shown to play a role in decreasing the calcium content of atherosclerotic plaques in spayed rabbits fed a high-cholesterol diet.
What percentage of calcium is excreted in rabbits?
The fractional excretion of calcium for most mammals is less than 2%; the range in rabbits is 45%-60%.
What diagnostic tools can be useful in identifying uroliths in farm animals?
Ultrasound can be a useful diagnostic tool for farm animals with suspected urolithiasis. The bladder in sheep typically sits within the pelvis, so the use of a standard linear probe such as one for cattle pregnancy diagnosis will be able to identify if the bladder is abnormally extending into the abdomen. Scott (2015) reports that for a 20 to 40kg growing lamb, a distended bladder is 6 to 8cm in diameter, whereas in a mature ram this would be 16 to 20cm in diameter.
What is the most common type of urolith in sheep?
In sheep, there are many different types of uroliths but struvite crystals are the most common and are associated with concentrate feeding that is high in phosphate and magnesium (Scott, 2015).
How to diagnose urolithiasis?
For new graduate vets who are often without an ultrasound machine, there are two equipment-free methods to aid diagnosis of urolithiasis: rectal palpation of the urethra and oral fluids. Rectal palpation, or digital palpation in small ruminants, enables the urethra to be palpated for pulsation or spasms. The urethra sits ventrally in the pelvis, and in blocked animals has obvious spasms. Giving oral fluids and asking the owner to monitor urine output on either shavings or a concrete yard are useful suggestions. However, action must be taken if the animal has no urine output within a few hours. This option is less preferable due to the obvious risk of worsening welfare if obstructed.
Can a male goat have urolithiasis?
It is well known among vets that male castrated sheep and goats are prone to urolithiasis; however, it is perhaps less well known that it can occur in other species such as pigs, cattle and camelids. Urolithiasis is the blockage of the urethra with urinary calculi (stones), which usually occurs at either the sigmoid flexure or urethral process. Typically, treatment for urolithiasis is surgical intervention or euthanasia.
Where is the bladder in sheep?
The bladder in sheep typically sits within the pelvis, so the use of a standard linear probe such as one for cattle pregnancy diagnosis will be able to identify if the bladder is abnormally extending into the abdomen
Can urolithiasis be missed?
In its early stages ( Figure 1 ), the disease can easily be missed by an inexperienced stockperson, resulting in owners often seeking veterinary advice too late in the disease process when the animal is showing more serious signs of urolithiasis ( Table 1 ).
Can a biochemistry lab confirm uroabdomen?
Biochemistry can be a helpful tool, with increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels indicating urolithiasis. Abdominocentesis can also be a useful tool to assess free fluid in the abdomen, and creatinine levels can be compared with serum creatinine levels to confirm uroabdomen. However, relying on external laboratories is not ideal due to the fast nature in which you need to act with these patients. It is worth considering referral to a farm animal hospital if in-house biochemistry is not available as referral institutes will be able to perform these diagnostic tests on site.
What Are The Symptoms?
- As with all conditions, symptoms will vary from rabbit to rabbit, with some exhibiting very subtle signs, and others showing severe discomfort and clinical signs. Symptoms will include; anorexia or lessening of appetite, fewer or cessation of droppings, blood may appear in the urine (haemat…
Diagnosis
- Radiographs and ultrasound are both diagnostic since both calculi and sludge are radio-opaque due to the calcium content.
Treatment Options
- The treatment will vary greatly due to the location of the calculi/sludge and the severity of the problems. Firstly, the rabbit must be stabilised and sufficient analgesia given, since the condition is so painful. Stabilisation may consist of aggressive fluid therapy: intravenous (directly into the vein) or if this is not possible then intraosseous (into the bone marrow) (as long as there is no o…
Sludgy Bladder
- Thick, calcium sludge seems to be a common and often incidental finding in rabbits, but IT IS NOT NORMAL. The problem is indicative of a diet too high in calcium, and/or poor hydration, and it is often a pre-disposing factor of cystitis, which may be a cause of urolithiasis. If the problem is causing clinical signs (the same as those which may be shown with calculi), then it is possible t…
Potential Causes
- Many factors have been sighted as causing urolithiasis in rabbits but no one single cause has been proved, and two rabbits fed identical diets, living identical lifestyles are both unlikely to develop problems, so the causes are liable to be numerous. No incidence of male/female, neutered/entire or breed incidence has been proven, but dwarf lop rabbits do seem to be affecte…